NonProfit Management Case Study Essay Example for Free

NonProfit Management Case Study Essay Introduction The civil society has taken a very active role in the quest for democracy that continues to spread across the continents till it reached the Middle East region only recently. This is clear given the successive revolts that have taken place in many of the Arab countries calling for real democracy. Therefore, especially in Egypt, efforts should be directed toward defending civil society organizations and activists who are being threatened by the coercive authoritarian government actions over the past decades (Naidoo, 2007). The civil society as identified by Khallaf (2010) comprises â€Å"non-governmental organizations (NGOs hereafter), community groups, professional associations, trade unions, media organizations, research institutes/ think tanks, and advocacy and human rights civil society organizations† (p. 2). However, the current paper aims at focusing mainly on the role of NGOs in strengthening democracy. This is due to the major role NGOs play in several areas in order to enhance democracy. Among these are their role in: (1) allowing a wider range of interest groups to have a ‘voice’, pluralizing institutions to act in a ‘watchdog’ role vis-a-vis the state, networking and creating alliances of civic actors to place pressure on the state, (2) working with grassroots organizations comprised of poor and marginalized groups, and (3) exerting some pressures on the state by pressing for change and developing alternative policies (Mercer, 2002). Previous Studies of civil society in Egypt, over the past twenty years, have been both superficial and confined to only limited areas, namely (issue based publications, academic publications, training materials/ manuals, directories, conference publications, empirical comparative studies, civil society organizations’ (CSOs) publications, donor guide books and publications, CSOs coalitions occasional papers, evaluation studies, and web based sources) (Khallaf, 2010). (Figure: 1). Figure : The diversity of civil society research in Egypt Therefore, more detailed studies should be directed toward deeply investigating the civil society organizations operating in Egypt. Khallaf (2010) has mentioned that more research has been directed recently to track the actual magnitude of civil society through donor efforts in Egypt. However, the literature has pointed to serious gaps in the study of NGOs in Egypt. These include; First: Updated statistical information on number of NGOs. Second: The systematic evaluation of NGOs activities. Third: periodic assessments such as the CIVICUS or Civil Society Index and the Philanthropy study. Forth: studying participatory governance and the involvement of civil society in decision making processes. Fifth: changing Laws and regulations governing NGOs in Egypt. Sixth: An impact assessment of all new NGOs working in charity or development. Seventh: an assessment of aid effectiveness to Egypt (Khallaf, 2010). Finally: a detailed diagnosis of the NGOs operating in Egypt is needed. This should focus on both internal and external analyses of the selected NGOs and provide policy recommendations for possible improvements in the sector. The current paper attempts to draw light on how the civil society operates in Egypt. A well recognized Egyptian NGO was selected in this ethnographic research. It is called the Future Protectors Association for Care and Development or â€Å"Homat Al-Mostakbal†. The reason behind selecting it is the higher credibility and the good reputation it is enjoying. This is quite well perceived by the researcher based on her personal experience with this association. The current research can add valuable insights both theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it attempts to cover few of the gaps mentioned about the civil society research in developing countries and Egypt in particular. Practically, proposed recommendations can serve as strategic agendas for improving the performance of the selected NGO in particular and the entire NGO sector in general. The current paper is organized as follows; the first section will provide detailed information about association’s background. This will be followed by the analysis section which would sum up the major facts collected about the association. The analysis is based on qualitative in-depth interviewing1 conducted with five key persons in the association including its founder. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are presented, to guide future research directions, at the conclusion part here later. Background Future protectors association for care and development (homat al mostakbal) is one of the well known non-governmental organizations in Egypt. It is located at 425 Avenue Road, Roushdy, Alexandria, Egypt. It is a group of young people who work in the field of developmental work and volunteerism in for a better future and a true renaissance to Egypt. It serves in the great Cairo area and some other governorates including; Alexandria, Dakahleya, Gharbeya, Menoufeya, and others. It was originally founded on the 2nd of Novermber, 2004 by Eng. El-Dreiny and his daughter engineer Marwa El-Dreiny. It was mainly founded seeking community development. The vision of the association is to be one of the largest civil society organizations working in the field and leading the areas of development, community care, and voluntary work in Egypt and the Arab world by year 2020. The mission of the association is the development and care of the community through several dimensions including; raising the general level of education and the development of production philosophy, increasing awareness of drug taking problems, providing health awareness, raising the cultural level of young people, and providing a variety of social services. These are to be achieved while taking into account the mastery of work and commitment to the principles of ethics and team work cooperation. The primary objectives to fulfill the pre-mentioned vision and mission include the following; Providing guidance and better utilizing the power of potential volunteers in various activities of the association and developing their skills while strengthening their moral values. Increasing the awareness of community members about the dangers of drugs and training of cadres for different age groups. In addition to providing technical support to partners and trainers in the field of awareness against the dangers of addiction and drug. Training community members by spreading the production thinking and helping youth and poor families in establishing small craft projects to supply industries with high quality products at competitive prices. Providing social services (in kind physical technical) and the work projects for poor families, orphans, deaf and dumb cases. Developing different segments of the society, especially children and young people both culturally and scientifically. This would entitle them to acquire new skills, open their horizons to different lives, and raise the level of education among the educated classes with aim of bringing progress and prosperity to the society in large. The major values of the association comprise the following; Intentions precede action Our basic principles are our main priority. Understanding the priorities and giving a high commitment to them. Mastering our work. Best employing our resources. Our clients are our core interest. Team work spirit. Commitment to a safe environment. The association is registered under the old NGO law. This entitles the association to be under the scrutiny and supervision of the Directorate of Social Affairs. Here is the copy of the registration certificate. Figure : Formal Registration Certificate The association tries as much to manage its institutional memory. This can be manifested in the form of reports including information about what happened in the past. Other reports are prepared for each activity and collected annually to be archived and documented for each committee. Also, there are few attempts to record religious seminars and cultural meetings either video or audio. Sometimes the association registers the campaigns to serve the new members by providing them with information about the work flavor. These tentative mechanisms are aimed at saving association heritage of knowledge and transfer it to the future generations who would complete the mission. The organization chart of the association was revised recently. There are intentions to modify it also however some limitations hinder this at the current period. The chart is decomposed into the Chairman of the Board of Directors, the Vice-Chairman of the Board of Directors, the Executive Director, the Chairmen of the various Committees the Vice Chairmen of the various Committees -who are appointed by the administration according to experience and seniority- the executive management including Secretary, the financial management. There were areas for development and the last updated organization chart was reproduced recently in 2011. The association was built on the basis of predominantly volunteerism however; there are 17 formal employees who are getting paid monthly. There are mainly three managers; executive, financial, and legal affairs. Staff members do not perform overlapping roles, instead there is a clearly specified job description for each single role. This would allow the upper management to apply a strict accountability procedures based on assigned responsibilities. The association is able to deal smoothly with the threat of losing any/all staff member(s). Sometimes, the operations of a highly specialized department, which loses a key staff member, can be postponed until the appointment of a new person. However, in the key roles like secretarial work, work cannot be stopped and duties can be referred to any interested volunteer. The collectivity and shared team working spirit that characterize the association enable it to face sudden problems of this sort. The association is having a board of directors. It is composed of 9 members, 1/3 of them are dropped during each nomination period. The nomination is made for 6 upcoming years. It is preferred to nominate persons with strong public relations to offer some facilities and those who have the expertise and strong knowledge about association’s policies. The association is membership based. There are different types of members including volunteers, affiliated, and working member. The membership status is documented only for continuing members who are then entitled to receive a formal membership card. Members pay a symbolic annual fee of about 20 pounds which represents one of the financial resources received by the association. The following chart represents the progress that has occurred in association’s membership from 2004 to 2008. In 2010, the number of volunteers has reached 4000. Figure : The number of volunteers The following chart represents the geographic allocation of volunteers across the different governorates. Figure : The geographic allocation of volunteers The social and economic background of the members is diverse. Majority of members are classified to be from the middle to upper middle social class. They are almost well educated having a clear intent toward the importance of charity and development societal roles in their country. They have strong religious understandings which enable them to volunteer their efforts for the sake of making others happy while earning credits (thawab) and pleasing the only god (ALLAH). The association has completed a huge number of successful projects2 and some of which are seasonal. The seasonal projects include distributing El Kheir bags and Ramadan lamps. It is planning to undertake some continuous projects not to be owned by the association but by encouraging the youth to execute them and the association can be a partner by 10%. Attached here below in the appendices is a list of the projects and activities the association is involved in. The primary beneficiaries of the association are; Volunteers, university students, school children, widowed women, poor families, knowledge seekers, patients, orphans, and the elderly at large. The association is not specifying a certain population to focus on serving. Activities are therefore not based on the coverage of a particular area, but they are tailored to achieve certain goals across the various geographic segments. 3 The association has unique policy for recruiting both members and staff. For the former, recruitment is based on the real intention to perform volunteer work. For the latter, recruitment is based on the exact mission to be completed within the functional department the potential candidate will join. The association views the current recruitment policy to be an effective one. Therefore, there are no plans to change its policy during the current period. The ratio of association’s founders to its members is roughly estimated to be 10%. Taking into considerations that the number of registered volunteers is roughly 4000, only 100-200 of them are active ones. The association depends on a self financing scheme. Majority of funds come from membership fees, donations (in cash or in kind), and revenues from profit-based committees. There is one company which operates in the field of quality and 75% of its income is transferred to the association. There are some funding projects such as the share the good, CSR, and Ijada company. Only 10% of the directed donations are taken to cover a proportion of administrative expenses but the money of Zakat is kept untouched. The association collects money from Egyptians. The money comes in forms of Zakat, sadakat, and in cash or in kind donations. It utilizes no foreign funding alternatives except for the single initiative with the United Nations. This partnership agreement was made under pressures from Dubai police and entitled the association to receive a fund of $ 10. 000 in order to execute some projects. The association has neither an initial endowment nor an emergency fund. It depended mainly on donations during the initial construction phase. There is a bank account for the association where the money collected from the various sources is being deposited to or withdrew from when necessary. The association does not always profit from most of its projects because they have low profit margins. Some seasonal projects might generate profit like the partnership with Toshiba Company to distribute Ramadan lamps. Donations are considered as part of the revenues. The association uses money coming from donations, sadakat, and the yield of some revenue-based activities. The general overhead costs of the association are estimated roughly to be from 30-40% of the budget. The ways to manage costs to the least possible level include, inducing members to rationalize consumption rates, closely monitoring monthly expenses, rationalizing staff recruitment process, and covering the costs of high telephone bills, hospitality and administrative outlays through collecting in kind donations. The association does not recognize any kind of support offered by the Egyptian government. The old government has provided only some facilities to make agreements with some concerned authorities such as ministries. This was mostly perceived prior to the revolution. However, the picture of the new potential government is still vague and there is no assurance that the new government would adopt a pro-civil society philosophy or not. There are tentative expectations about possible cooperation from the ministry of environment in the future. Analysis Based on the results of the in-depth personal interviews conducted with key persons in the association two types of analysis were made. The following section starts by presenting the first type of analysis which is the SWOT. This will be followed by the PEST analysis. 1. SWOT analysis The association enjoys a number of strength points. These strengths include, but not limited to, the following; a. Strong team spirit is a huge asset, good and efficient management system, good public relations, raising the skills of volunteers through gained experience, and very good reputation perceived by partners and the community at large. b. The presence of strong networks both locally and internationally. Locally with government institutions such as the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, the Adult Education in Alexandria, the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the Ministry of Environment (protocol of cooperation),partnership training with the engineering industries sector TV ITVs affiliated to the Ministry of Industry, Alexandria Biblotecha library (Department of Public Relations and Information), Morkoseya Church, the Food Bank, and the Egyptian (permanent agreement). Internationally, networks with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Organized Crime in the United Nations, the Dubai Police (working as technical/training consultants to raise awareness of the damages of drug addiction. c. Good coordination with other local and international organizations. Examples include organizing joint training programs with renaissance makers club in Kuwait, the Ministry of Awqaf in Kuwait, the American University of Kuwait, Gulf University, CID in Kuwait and the Ministry of Defense, Union of Arab Doctors (donations to Libya), the office of Dr. Muhammad Salim Al-Awa, Toshiba Arab company and Ocean Express Company and Isam Abu-setta for heavy transport, New Horizons and Xeon, Arab Academy for Science and Technology, University of Pharos, Alexandria University, Cairo University, Helwan University, Ain Shams University, Menoufiya University, Western University , Mansoura University, Assuit University. Alshanek ya Balady Association, Alexandria west investors association, and set your goal association, the future hands Hospital. In addition to cultural partnership cooperation with the Egyptian-Turkish Friendship Association. d. The presence of a strong infrastructure in the main headquarters in Alexandria. It is located in a prestigious location, well furnished, and highly accessible. However it is not a private property and thus imposes the burden of paying high monthly rent. This location is equipped by personal computers, laptops, wireless network, and they have electronic marketing forces empowered by strong specialists in the field. e. The presence of an independent financial management and independent social affairs and legal affairs units whose staff are paid. The recycling project, the specialized teams used in field case studies, the illiteracy teachers, and volunteers. f. The lack of specific religious or political directions and the presence of strong relationships with respectable figures in Alexandria. The inclusion of small associations in the many events organized by the association. Dependence on respectable personalities in providing certain services. g. Partnering with the association provides the partner several privileges and huge returns. A list of those privileges and returns to partners and individuals can be found later in the appendices. The obvious weakness points observed in this association include the following; a. Funding problems (almost self-financing by 99% from members) and the presence of many projects in second row but (senior management has recently begun to train the middle class members to complete these projects and continue the transfer of expertise to their followers). b. There are no integration links between the projects. c. Some personal conflict problems might arise sporadically among members. d. Administrative problems, and lack of strictness and formalization procedures due to a conflict between the role of leader and manager, but they overcome this problem by appointing an executive director. e. Inadequate promotion for the association in the media compared to other competitors. The reasons are mainly to reduce expenses and due to the imposed security restrictions. f. The absence of headquarters in some governorates like Dakahleya and Gharbeya which constitutes a big problem because the teams there are highly specialized and they need the proper setting to grow on it. g. The lack of specialization between the work forces in undertaking the projects. h. Some communication problems were present however, the Human Resources Director has solved them. i. Lack of volunteers and problems with their continuity/tenure. In some cases the volunteer has a desire to see the immediate result of his voluntary work which makes them less patient to continue. Most of the projects carried out by the association have longer term impacts and feasibility. j. Shortage in financial resources and operational tools. The major opportunities, brought from the external environment, facing the association for the time being include the following; a. Activating some agreements with the Union of Arab doctors, the Ministry of Environment, various associations, political awareness teams, in addition to different charitable and awareness-raising teams seeking support from the association in terms of logistics and training. b. A strong deactivated relationship with Al-Jazeera training center which is currently under study. c. The existence of many public figures, associations, and young modest advocates who have neither political nor religious direction. The association can take advantage of their cooperation efforts. d. A number of donors from America, Canada and Morocco who have appeared after the revolution as service volunteers like doctors. e. Localities and the Council of the People elections. This can be achieved by nominating independent members. Any successful nominated member can offer some facilities and services to the association. Also, this will give the chance for the association to be presented as one of the active civil society organizations participating in crafting the new constitution. f. Offering many partnerships to join the association with large well known institutions such as New Horizons, the Arab Academy for Science and Technology, and other new companies through exhibitions. Their offered contributions come mainly in the form of donations. g. The existence of promising facilities to complete some strategic projects through governmental entities. h. Reducing some of the strict scrutiny procedures imposed previously by the old government and the security apparatus. i. The expansion and proliferation in the environment of charity work, the launch of various public events and the intense presence of the civil society activities. j. The potential for participation with other unknown may be small, associations to perform some other projects outside the scope of work of the association. This represents the potential for diversification and expansion of work coverage. k. People’s Openness and their new reconciliation with the community with the desire to join the civil society institutions to provide charity services. l. The presence of various finance institutions through which the association can expand its operations scale after getting approvals from concerned authorities. m. The neutrality of the association both politically and religiously is a major strength. It is manifested in attracting bodies of various ideologies either as beneficiaries or participants. These include for example, Morosely Church or El-Azhar in my life project. The major threats or challenges, brought from the external environment, facing the association include the following; a. The societal openness can produce many competitors; some of them are supported by huge funding schemes and are biased toward the fulfillment of certain political religious agendas. b. Security threats to volunteers and the possibility of exposure to risk in places where they provide services. The possibility of being abused by law breakers due to the lack of security in the Egyptian streets mainly after the recent events. c. Exploiting association’s activities for the beneficial interests of others. This is totally rejected. This might impose the threat of diluting the association’s public image. Examples include candidates’ coverage for elections or political support using association’s name and good reputation. d. The presence of some competitors with high media coverage, such as resala. e. The culture of voluntary work is still somehow tentative. The lack of awareness of others about the culture of volunteerism and societal responsibility. f. The necessity to invest in volunteers to improve their skills and derive maximum value out of their participation. g. The unstable economic situation of the Egyptian State. h. The role of the Ministry of Social Solidarity has been hindering the progress of the work of the civil society for long years ago. i. The emergence of the Muslim brotherhood and the ancestors (salaf) as major competitors. j. Lack of human rights and political awareness and the prevailing unjustified freedom leading to chaotic results. k. The culture of the conspiracy against Egypt and the presence of some many unnatural Egyptian T. V talk show moderators. l. The owners of certain rented headquarters are drug dealers. This represents a major threat calling for immediate actions in moving those headquarters. 2. The PEST analysis a. Political Factors The political environment in which the association operates appears to be unstable. This status has recently turned to be much intense following the revolution due to the emergence of new political groupings. There are some promising expectations that the new democratically elected government will set new policies that are pro the civil society. The new policies are expected to contain modified laws that regulate taxation and provide more support and facilities to NGOs’ operations. The old government economic policies seemed to be incredibly inefficient resulting into a deteriorated national economic performance. This government had also no hand on regulating the marketing ethics of operating NGOs. Its major concern was on prohibiting religiously oriented activities and banning NGOs participation in the political life. b. Economic Factors The slowdown in Egyptian national economy has impacted the role of the association. This was reflected into low interest rates on savings and high interest charges on borrowings. The inflation rate continued to grow reducing the purchasing value of the Egyptian pound. The long-term prospects for the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita and other economic indicators will depend on the policies and procedures adopted by the new elected government. c. Socio-cultural Factors The dominant religion in Egypt is Islam. The association is not discriminating against either religion or gender. The partnership with morkoseya church is an evidence to support this claim. The role of women continues to grow largely and rapidly in the Egyptian society. They are becoming well educated, highly paid, and having a self commitment toward volunteer work. The majority of people the association is targeting its services are illiterate. The general population lacks a solid awareness regarding green environmental issues. This is a very important role of the association in advocating for a green environment and promoting green activities. These include reducing consumption and disposal rates, saving energy, recycling disposed items†¦etc. d. Technological Factors Technological innovations make life easier for all. The association utilizes as many of the technological facilities like wireless connections, fax, and international calls to carry out daily activities. The emphasis should be directed toward strengthening association’s technological infrastructure to be able to do business through online communication channels. There are strong promises regarding what the future can bring to the civil society in general and to the association in particular. This is manifested in several key points. First: the majority of people are becoming motivated to volunteer work. Second: the increased public awareness of the importance of civic and collective actions in contrast to confining the role of the individual to achieve purely personal goals. Third: the strong promises and positive perception maintained by the majority of the poor toward the role of the civil society due to government failure to satisfy their needs. Forth: the diversity in working areas removes many of the restrictions imposed on the civilian work. Fifth: the potential for cooperation from the new elected democratic government. Sixth: the potential for receiving huge inflows of international donors’ funds. Finally, the presence of many initiatives aimed at community and society renaissance that could be built upon. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the previous systematic analyses, the following conclusions are reached. The selected association is one of an above medium size. It has several branches covering a range of governorates in Egypt. In addition to that it has multiple international partnership agreements abroad with some countries like Kuwait and Dubai. It is innovative due to the creativity exercised by its members in proposing and launching new project initiatives given the limited financial and physical resources available to them. The diversity of its projects adds to its effectiveness by solving problems in multiple critical areas. Administratively, the association can be run more efficiently than its current status. The overhead costs can be controlled so that not to exceed 10% of the annual budget. This can be achieved through cutting back on hospitality, renting, and utilities expenses or finding a sponsor company to offer them for free. The remainder of the budget should be entirely devoted to implementing key projects and programs. Once those two objectives are met – keeping O. H costs to the minimum and maximizing the pool of resources available to projects – the association can enhance its reliability and credibility as perceived by the various stakeholder groups. It has to overcome one of its critical weaknesses which is the deficient public media coverage. Adopting innovative promotional campaigns, through media, flyers, and positive word of mouth, can bring in extra revenues, many volunteers individuals or corporations, government support, and a favorable public image. It has to integrate advanced sophisticated techniques to save institutional memory for the next generations. Applying digital archiving, video and audio recordings of important projects, seminars, and events, keeping records of association’s best practices are all effective methods to save memory beside the conventional paper-based archiving mechanism. Web presence is very critical to the association. It is not well developed because the current website is down and the main gate to potential members is through the social media like the face book. Thus, developing a full featured website can provide good communication channels for the association both locally and internationally. The association has to allow potential members to register online. The composition of the board of directors needs some adjustments. A combination of co-founders, highly prestigious figures, wealthy capitalists, experienced technocrats – given the fact that they are all politically and religiously unbiased will allow the association to leverage each party’s privileges respectively. The reason is that co-founders are well informed about the association, its mission, vision, goals and have an intuitive inner commitment to achieve them. The highly prestigious, well known, famous, and rich members – who represent the status symbol can bring in extra money through their special donations and strong contacts with bureaucrats. The wealthy capitalists can have a win-win situation. On the one hand, they can enjoy public credibility and commitment toward social responsibility and on the other hand they will cash in the association to derive this legitimacy. Experienced technocrats can propose better structural reforms, manage operational complexities, and implement strategies to improve performance by capitalizing on strengths and overcoming weaknesses. The association is membership-based and it serves multiple interests. It channels members’ annual fees to implement projects serving members of the poor communities. It also develops the skills and competencies of its members in return for their volunteer time, money, and efforts. The non-profit nature of the association should not hinder its attempts to implement profit-based projects. These projects are important to cover the high overhead cost, keep an emergency fund â€Å" to hedge against bad economic conditions,† invest surplus in revenue earning initiatives, finance new developmental projects, and finally keep work flow smoothly while enjoying the tax exemption privilege. Providing full fledged free support should be only restricted to severe cases. These include very poor, eldery, disable, and young sick children in highly marginalized areas. Otherwise, providing services should have something in return. For example, providing microfinance for poor families can be balanced against donating a certain percentage of periodical revenues to fund other projects. One more thing that should be emphasized specially after the revolution of January 25th is augmenting international funding options. The association has to devise an effective strategy to share a large portion of international donor money coming into Egypt to support democracy. Only with a clear schedule of valuable projects, the association can guarantee international donors’ support without facing the threat of policy conditionality i. e. , imposing a certain development agenda on fund recipient as a condition to be granted the money. This can secure association’s activities financially, allow it to cover O. H costs, implement expansion plans, and better serve society’s compelling needs. General recommendations to improve the civil society in Egypt; 1. The presence of a regulatory environment for transparency rather than for control. 2. Ensuring enough flexibility in law application and enforcement i. e. , the law versus the implementation issue. 3. Promoting an openness commitment to partnership between government and public institutions and the civil society. 4. Supporting a bottom-up approach to development from donors’ side. 5. Supporting the creation of institutions rather than only short or medium term programs to promote for sustainable development. 6. Mobilizing mechanisms to maximize the real value perceived by the beneficiaries from the donors’ dollars. Page (2011) mentioned that only 10 to 30 percent of this actual grant will go to the real beneficiaries. 7. Supporting the youth-led NGOs so that they can actually participate in leading the winds of change toward democracy in Egypt. P. S. for those interested in accessing the association for donations, or more research work, here are association’s contacts. Address

Portrait of a Cartographer :: Creative Writing Essays

Portrait of a Cartographer Someone must decide how to color maps. Where to put the pale yellow, coral pink, the olive green, burnt orange, magenta. Where to put the darkest shades of blue. The lightest. There is something of symmetry, of composition. There is topography to consider. Demographics. The vast expanse of open land, open water, the sensuous curves of coastline, of mountain ranges, of rivers with their writhing bodies and forked tongues. The color of the ocean is according to its depth. In terms of Indonesia, of Nova Scotia, of Sudan, colors are arbitrary. They reject symbolism, existing only to say look here, I am this and not the other. Differentiation, identity within borders. To imagine each color as a body, each convex to the concave of another, like spoons stacked, like lovers in bed, like the earthen layers of sedimentary rock. Pages of a history book warped from moisture. In the skies of the northern hemisphere, I have learned to trust Orion. His delicate belt of three hanging sensuously off-center, suggesting contraposto. I imagine he must look much like stone, marble perhaps. Michelangelo's David. Head of frozen curls, rippled abdomen, arms to the side, large curled hands like leaves. A summer sky in Africa, I could not find him so I trusted the Southern Cross. Four stars are one more than three. I am the space between stars. In stellar cartography, you will know me as such. Smothered by darkest nebula, clusters of blue-white giants. Orphaned objects in deep sky, brilliant for the taking, I push them apart with my palms. I could swallow them whole but my throat is too small, my belly distended and blue like an infant. And that is the way I cry. There in my narrow boat cutting across a black sea, no moss. Carina the keel, Vela the sail. Flapping of white light across my face. Carry me from this world of names, of butterflies asphyxiated, pinned down across blue velvet. Each wing goes unremembered in this sky, this world of moon stations. The phoenix was remembered too late. She needed room to breath; she has choked on ash. No one heard her cry out, but I felt the earth, the night sky quake. The Pleiades are seven sisters, a young and hot open cluster of stars. Daughters of Atlas and Pleione. Violet beauties, a core of white heat.

How useful is the term ‘cultural revolution’ when applied to the sixties?

The sixties are definitely remembered by its generation as a time of significant change. Many associate the period fondly with memories of groups such as The Beatles and The Kinks, at the same time remembering the many protests and movements that hoped to change the ideas and values of society. In answer to whether the term ‘cultural revolution' is useful when applied to the sixties, study of these disciplines is most certainly necessary. Despite the period of study being only a matter of decades from present day, we still face the same problems any historian would face given the same question applied to a time centuries ago. The validity of the sources is of utmost importance; fortunately in regards to the music of the sixties we have records from the time, and charts to show the popularity of groups and artists. In regards to the field of science, there is a great variety of primary source material due to the nature of the profession. One could safely assume that the documented research and findings were indeed accurate and reliable information from educated professionals. Science in the sixties is very much associated with protests, surprisingly not only by rebellious radicals but respected public figures and people at the top of their fields and professional careers. With figures such as Eisenhower raising concerns regarding the dominance and excess of military weapons the public had to stand up and listen. People's faith in the government was undermined by the disillusionment of events that happened in the Vietnam War. The sixties almost certainly contributed to the changing in attitudes towards authority, leading the way for if not a cultural revolution, then a shift in peoples thinking, and an intolerance for civilians to be left in the dark. People were willing to stand up for what they believed in, which resulted in a number of forces converging to cause traditional values to be thrown aside. However, at the same time we must acknowledge that these concerns that were being voiced in the early sixties were primarily a result of the military development in technological warfare in the forties and fifties such as the atomic bomb. The question was, why had these concerns taken so long to be voiced? A major part in the many protests and movements had to be the media; both television and radio were in the position to sensationalize an issue and selectively control the information they presented. Therefore, people began to be driven more by drama than by tradition and reflection. Images of devastation from around the world were transmitted into people's living rooms and for the first time they were able to see for themselves the devastation of war and military arms. If we understand the term ‘cultural revolution' as a transformation in the attitudes towards authority and a change in the everyday lives of people then television had to be at the forefront of this revolution. It was a huge influence behind the protests at MIT opposing America's involvement in the Vietnam War. These images outraged people and this rage ignited movements to oppose the war and resist the conscription. Attitudes to authority changed, there was an outrage against a government who were sending the sixties youth to their deaths for a war that didn't involve America. As a result of scientific research in aid of war, the sixties saw the introduction of chemical warfare; biological weapons such as DDT were developed and used to kill vegetation and crops that the Vietcong were using as groundcover and as food sources. This was a huge revolution and advancement in scientific development but further fuelled the concerns of movements of two kinds, those that were anti-science, and those that were not against science; but the practices of scientists in the late sixties. The revolution also affected the way in which scientists carried out their work, they had lost their intellectual freedom; the military governed what research they conducted and prohibited them from publishing their findings in journals and publications. These were definitely the results of a technological revolution. The irony is, that whilst the government and military funded expensive scientific research, putting not only finances but also great amounts of control and trust into the scientists, it was these scientists who had the most power over the country. Opposition to military involvement wasn't the only counter-movement regarding scientific research in the sixties; there was also huge objection in the roles of women in scientific study. The grievance was more than the issue that there were few women working in the science field, but also that the majority who had been successful in pursuing a career in science weren't able to sustain their posts. A study by Rossi in 1965 showed that compared to males, more females across a range of occupations voluntarily left their posts, more so in the field of science. The study also showed that women counted for only 10% of individuals who worked in science. It was findings like this that began movements for the cause of ‘women's liberation' and were a sign of changing times and a revolution in the role of women who sought for the same rights to education and employment opportunities as men. It was also two women in science who played a major role in revolutionizing ideas about the human embryo. Lenz and Kelsey's research went against all that previously been believed about pregnant women and their unborn children. They're research tackled and exposed the ignorance of traditional practices; primarily challenging the idea at the time, that what didn't harm the pregnant mother, couldn't harm her child. Through their insistence that babies react differently to drugs, nicotine, alcohol etc, they radically transformed neonatal studies. When applied to the struggle for women to be acknowledged in the field of science, the term ‘cultural revolution' is extremely useful, because movements in the sixties paved the way for more women into education. For example, the demand for advanced education to be more accessible to women saw the number of women graduate in primatology go from zero in the 1960's to eight out of ten students in the 1990's. This was clearly an outstanding achievement that shows the impact of the sixties. Music was another field that underwent a radical transformation during the sixties. It wasn't simply a case of new trends being introduced however. The sixties music scene was about existing trends, the revival of early music and the introduction of original sounds. In terms of music, the sixties could be seen as a cultural revolution. The variety of styles contributed to challenging existing ideas about music, and showed the importance for them to co-exist to establish a rich and lively music scene. The sixties music scene is renowned for being associated with the Beatles and rebellious figures such as Jimi Hendrix and The Kinks, however, at the same time existing trends were still hugely popular as was the early music revival. It was the co-existence of the three that made the sixties revolutionary. Bands and artists embraced the rich and diversified music styles, and the sixties saw much experiment with lyrics and instruments. Not least, among these were The Beatles, their shift from usual music styles is evident in Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Heavily influenced from eastern styles, this was nothing innovative; however, it was a relatively unheard style among the British fans. It appealed to the sixties generation who sought alternative lifestyles and the blending of cultures set to challenge pre-conceived ideas of Brit-pop. Jimi Hendrix was also at the forefront of the sixties music revolution, with erotic and suggestive mannerisms he appealed to the generation who consumed sexual liberation. His rebellious and aggressive music was something that protesters and anarchists at the time could identify with, finding their own voice in this expressive form. The early music revival, although established in the late fifties, was at its most prevalent in the sixties. This interest in a period of music that had previously been ‘forgotten' demonstrated a transformation in the tastes of the sixties generation. Although classic composers such as Handel and Bach had been popular in earlier periods, there was one main difference in the appreciation of early music during the sixties. The emphasis of the early music revival was the desire for authenticity; the sixties saw a change to how these compositions were performed; which led to experimentation in tempo, instruments and styles of singing. It is argued that the sixties were not an isolated period for cultural change; and that the sixties merely followed on from what had began in the late fifties. The changes that were seen to happen in the sixties could just as well be attributed to the upshot of the end of the war. Families had experienced a great disruption in their lives; many had been killed in the war and had left families shattered. The women's liberation could be a reaction to women resenting their return to domestic duties and pre WWII lifestyle, after having filled the roles of men in the workplace when manpower was limited. The seventies also played their part in this cultural change; despite the rise of feminism and gay rights initiating in the late sixties, they didn't fully come into fruition until the seventies. However, in spite of the roles the fifties and seventies played in what is seen as a ‘cultural revolution', the sixties is undoubtedly synonymous with all that was radical and new at that time. In conclusion, having only looked at two disciplines, it leaves us limited to answer whether the sixties were indeed a ‘cultural revolution'. However, in regards to the examples we've seen in both the fields of music and science, there is certainly proof that the sixties were a significant time for change. Its impossible to know for certain whether these changes would have taken place if not for situations and circumstances that arose during the sixties, and whether they were in fact just a consequence of a nation recovering from war. Despite this, the term ‘cultural revolution' is certainly useful when applied to the sixties in a number of examples; attitudes to authority were challenged, women gained greater access into education and music appeared to unite and give voice to rebellious protesters who sought a change in ideas and values.

Cultural Relativism And Moral Relativism - 1620 Words

Introduction Cultural relativism is a certain perspective, which was adopted by the anthropologists in the course of the early years of 1900’s. Cultural relativism basically states that every culture is equal to any other culture and all cultures are legitimate expressions of the human spirit. In accordance to the specifications of cultural relativism, people are expected to attempt to gain an understanding of the other culture by basically viewing them through their individual â€Å"cultural lens†. In that regard, it requires that people aim at getting the emic perspective of other cultures in order to be in the position of gaining insight about the historical background of the cultures that they are studying. Therefore, people are not expected to ethnocentrically impose their own beliefs, as well as, opinions that are actually the products of their own enculturation. However, it has to be understood that cultural relativism is a crucial stance while learning about the other culture but it should not be considered to be similar to moral relativism. Within this paper, I will take a critical review of an aspect of my individual culture through the etic (outsider’s) lens so as to be in the position of gaining an outsider’s perspective, then review an aspect of some other culture from the emic (insider’s) perspective so as to get relatively familiar with the various motivation behind a certain practice. Particularly, I am going to review the non-veiling of American Muslim womenShow MoreRelatedCultural Relativism And Morals And Codes883 Words   |  4 Pagesits long history. Cultural relativism is a very interesting and controversial topic in the philosophical/ religious world. To further understand cultural relativism one must first learn the definition. Cultural relativism is the view that Different cultures have different moral codes and values, therefore culture is subjective and arbitrary. When given a closer look at cultura l relativism we come to the conclusion that it is not as plausible as it first appears and that certain moral values are neededRead MoreCultural Relativism : A Moral Theory1676 Words   |  7 PagesCultural relativism is not Objectivism, which is a moral theory that states that there are certain moral standards that everyone should follow regardless of their opinion and indifference towards them. Cultural relativism is one of the two forms of Ethical Relativism. The latter one belongs to a form of moral skepticism. It states that moral standards are not objective, but relative to the standards of a person or a society. Consequently, cultural relativism is based on the belief that a moral standardRead MoreThe Theory Of Cultural Moral Relativism1627 Words   |  7 PagesMichael Atefi Professor Walker Phil-1020 29 September 2015 First Exam 1.) The theory of cultural moral relativism is based on the beliefs that it is arrogant to judge the moral codes of other cultures and that people should be tolerant towards the practices of other cultures (Rachels 19). By holding these beliefs, the theory implies that all cultures are equal and should be treated as such. Cultural moral relativism is also based on the idea that there is no universal truth in ethics (Rachels 18). IfRead MoreCultural Relativism : Moral And Immoral846 Words   |  4 Pages1. Cultural Relativism Relativism is the concept which show that there is no absolute truth in morality, only the truth that particular individual or cultures happen to believe. In other words, the definition of moral depends on a person’s culture, society or his or her group of people. If you believe in relativism, then you think different people can have different views about the question: what is moral and immoral? Likewise, everyone have to choose upon his or her ethics because there are no absolutesRead MoreCultural Relativism : The Moral Code Of A Culture1470 Words   |  6 PagesCultural relativism is self-explanatory in its name but goes deeper beyond that. Cultural relativism states that standards are relative to one’s culture. There are no standards of morality shared by all societies; all rules are controlled by the society in which a person lives. If the moral code of a culture says that an action is right than according to those standards, the action is right. If the society say s that a certain action is wrong, without any input from other cultures, the action is wrongRead MoreCultural Relativism And The Moral Code Of Society Essay1768 Words   |  8 Pageshave different moral codes. Cultural relativism claims that ethics is relative to individuals, groups, cultures and societies. Relativism resists universal moral normal. The moral code of society determines what is right or wrong in that society. There’s no objective standard that can be used to judge one’s society code against another. Its arrogant to judge others cultures. We should always be tolerant of them. Cultural relativism for many people is a response to the complexity of moral issues and theRead MoreEssay on The Cultural Differences Argument for Moral Relativism1299 Words   |  6 PagesRuth Villagra The Cultural Differences Argument for Moral Relativism. Moral Relativism is generally used to describe the differences among various cultures that influence their morality and ethics. According to James Rachels, because of moral relativism there typically is no right and wrong and briefly states : â€Å"Different cultures have different moral codes.† (Rachels, 18) Various cultures perceive right and wrong differently. What is considered right in one society could be considered wrongRead MoreCultural Relativism And The View That Ethical Systems Or Moral Actions1351 Words   |  6 PagesSection 1 1. Cultural relativism Cultural relativism refers to the view that ethical systems or moral actions that are perceived to vary across cultural diversity are all equal and valid and as such, no one culture is better than the other is. For instance, by taking how words are used in one culture to mean a thing, the same words may be employed in a different culture to mean another thing. Another example is prayer announcements in Saudi Arabia can be heard from far distance which legal. EvenRead MoreEvaluate †©Rachels †©Arguments †©Against †©Cultural†© Relativism Essay1682 Words   |  7 PagesPHIL1001 ESSAY Evaluate†©Rachels†©arguments†©against†©cultural†©relativism.†©Is†©he†©right†©to†©endorse†© objective†©moral†©realism? DINH NAM TRAN 308213904 Cultural relativism, as defined by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. â€Å"Is the thesis that a person’s culture strongly influences her modes of perception and thought† Most cultural relativists add to this definition saying that there is no standard of morality. This means that morality is relative to the particular society that one lives inRead MoreCultural Relativism Essay1702 Words   |  7 Pagessociety, cultural relativism is an acceptable theory to adhere to. A society is a collective group of people who are either figuratively or literally aggregated together. There are many societies, sub-societies, and communities that are overlapping. At the same time, every living individual in the world makes up an umbrella society or community that constructs the present-day society. In â€Å"The Challenge of Cultural Relativism,† James Rachels claims that there are consequences to accepting cultural relativism

Slavery Refers To A Condition - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 656 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/05/13 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Slavery Essay Did you like this example? Slavery refers to a condition in which individuals are owned by others, who control where they live and at what they work. Near two million slaves were conveyed to the American South from African and the West Non mainstream players amid the Atlantic slave exchange. The American South represented over 20% African Americans. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Slavery Refers To A Condition" essay for you Create order One of the prime roles in the enslavement of blacks was the economy. The colonies in the South wanted to produce the most goods for export as possible; therefore requiring the cheapest labor. The Europeans in what was known as The Triangular Trans-Atlantic Slave Exchange transported the African locals from Africa. This was a sorted out course where Europeans would venture out to Africa bringing produced merchandise, catch Africans and take them to the Caribbean, and after that take the yields and products and take them back to Europe. The African individuals, so as to impart designed a dialect that was a blend of all the African dialects consolidated. This languages currently changes from island to island. They additionally kept their way of life, which represents calypso music and the instruments utilized in these melodies. In the 1600s when John Rolfe established tobacco, tobacco turned into the principle wellspring of salary for a large portion of the pioneers. The monetary success of the states was essentially reliant on the measure of tobacco created. The developing of tobacco required a lot of land, with a vast stable work drive. The expanded interest for a huge, stable work compel joined with the accessibility of African slaves, prompted the utilization of subjugation in the provinces. The slaves would just require being instructed a bit, rather than teaching the obligated hirelings over after such a significant number of years have past by. Family life among subjection was to a great degree impacted and formed by persecution. Families were shaped around, and torn separated by the malevolence of their masters and the outcomes of their activities. Kids were sold far from their moms and fathers never to see them again and set to work at an early age. The bosses ensured that their slaves couldnt peruse and compose for the simple truth that on the off chance that they ever were to learn, there would be a fairly vast uprising of obstruction. A few slaves did learn and got away effectively. Others be that as it may, were not as effect ive or as capable as others and were in no methods fundamental ready to control their very own destiny. Slavery additionally was intensely affected by religion. Slaves sang tunes, murmured spirituals, constantly and discharge themselves from the grasping hands of bondage. They went to chapel on in some cases a normal premise however it was not exactly as it ought to have been. Whites continually administered the majority and ensured that the Blacks were trained that bondage was great by White evangelists. The slaves made up tunes that were encoded with a message that just they knew so they could convey securely without having the ace discover. They sang these tunes in cheerful occasions and additionally during hopelessness or distress. To conclude slavery was a heartless, avoidable foundation which caused a great deal of unnecessary passings, distress and disorder to African Americans and abolitionists alike over a time of a few hundred years. Abolitionists were a slaves solitary expectation in this timeframe. The danger of being gotten was high, and the discipline was much more extreme. It took a lot of bravery for the conductors to help slaves, as well as to really be the slave who was fleeing. They never surrendered their confidence, and battled some of the time until death for what they had faith in. With the death of the Liberation Decree, subjugation didnt promptly arrive at an end. In any case, this gave a kick off to all captives to continue holding tight for only somewhat longer until the point that genuine change could happen.

Symbolism In Edgar Allen Poes The Tell Tale Heart

How does the symbolism affect the meaning of a written piece, does it make it more or less important? Symbolism is used to represent ideas; that may imply deeper, hidden meaning than what the text directly states. Symbolism can be used in different ways throughout different books; for example, â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart†, by Edgar Allen Poe and â€Å"Once upon a Time†, by Nadine Gordimer, contain a variety of symbolism that have the possibility of having two or more meanings. The problem with this is identifying what the text could really mean, and how that changes the story. How does comparing the use of symbolism in both stories and showing the difference in the stories direct text and length, with and without the implied symbolism, answer the†¦show more content†¦He has the old man murdered in his personal bedroom in his bed as the killer s weapon. Symbolism in this work of literature is highly important; without it the story would be a slightly confusing,sh own in the ending of the story when the murder hears the heartbeat, getting louder and louder, but nobody else can hear it and then admits his guilt attempting to stop the sound, metaphorically saying that the guilt (represented by the heart) he carried with him after murdering the old man grew and grew as if it was going to burst out of him, leading him to confess so his subconscious (also represented by the heart ) would be put at ease. Evident by the following quote,†Villains!† I shrieked ,†dissemble no more!I admit the deed! --tear up the planks!--here, here!--It is the beating of his hideous heart!†. Without the use of symbolism in these quotes, the meaning of the quotes and the rest of the piece would mean something completely different; Similar to what would happen in, â€Å"Once Upon a Time† by Nadine Gordimer, if you took out the symbolic pieces and read it specifically as it was written. Like in Poe’s previously stated piece, â€Å"Once Upon a Time†, by Nadine Gordimer is mostly made up ofShow MoreRelatedSymbolism in Edgar Allen Poes The Tell-Tale Heart Essay863 Words   |  4 PagesSymbolism in Edgar Allen Poes The Tell-Tale Heart In Poes The Tell-Tale Heart, the narrator claims that he is not mad but his behavior tells a different story. He is truly determined to destroy another male human being, not because of jealousy or animosity but because one of his eyes resembled that of a vulture- a pale blue eye, with a film over it (1206). The narrator sees the man with this ghastly eye as a threat to his well being, but it is he who is a menace to his own being. HeRead More Edgar Allen Poes The Tell-Tale Heart and the Symbolism of the Eye1221 Words   |  5 PagesEdgar Allen Poe is the genius responsible for dark, twisting, and often uncomfortably wondrous gothic tales, and one of the best is The Tell-Tale Heart. This is a classic tale of a confused man who is so incredibly bothered by his housemates eye, that he (I am assuming this sexless character is male) thinks the only solution is to resort to cold-blooded murder. Poe incorporates the symbol of the old mans eye in The Tell-Tale Heart, which has both ph ysical and psychological meaning, it alsoRead MoreEdgar Allen Poe and His Work Essay1480 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar Allen Poe and His Work Outline I. Introductory Paragraph I.1. Thesis statement I.2. High points II. First Paragraph II.1. Brief history of life III. Second Paragraph III.1. Edgars Writing Style III.2. Examples IV. Specific poems and short stories IV.1. Examples V. Conclusion Paragraph V.1. Restating thesis statement V.2. Restating high points of the paper Edgar Allen Poe was one of the great writers of this world. He created several poems and short stories of aRead MorePoe: An Analysis of His Work862 Words   |  4 Pages The Portable Edgar Allen Poe, edited by J. Gerald Kennedy, is a phenomenal compilation of works from one of Americas greatest writers of the nineteenth century. Published in 2006, the book contains short stories, poems, and letters, written by Edgar Allen Poe. Full of lies, hope, revenge, and guilt, the stories in this assemblage are suspenseful and convey powerful messages. Of all the amazing stories that comprise this anthology, â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart†, â€Å"The Black Cat†, and â€Å"The Pit and theRead MoreComparitve Analysis of the Raven Tell Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe1257 Words   |  6 PagesComparative Analysis of the Tell Tale Heart and the Raven Edgar Allen Poe was the author of several daunting works of literature. Two examples of Edgar Allen Poes literature are The Tell Tale Heart and The Raven. If we compare these two works, one a short story and the other a poem, we will see that Poe shows great mastery of symbolism, as well as other forms of literary technique. In these two stories, many people would say that Poe uses the tales to reflect the way he perceivesRead MoreThe Gothic Theme of Edgar Allen Poes Work1357 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar Allen Poe was an English short-story writer whose work reflects the traditional Gothic conventions of the time that subverted the ambivalence of the grotesque and arabesque. Through thematic conventions of the Gothic genre, literary devices and his own auteur, Edgar Allan Poe’s texts are considered sublime examples of Gothic fiction. The Gothic genre within Poe’s work such as The Tell-Tale Heart, The Black Cat, and The Raven, arouse the pervasive nature of the dark side of individualism andRead MoreSymbolism In The Tell Tale Heart And The Tell Tale Heart987 Words   |  4 Pages How does the symbolism affect the meaning of a written piece, does it make it more or less important? Symbolism is used to represent ideas; that may imply deeper, hidden meaning than what the text directly states. Symbolism can be used in different ways throughout different books; for example, â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart†, by Edgar Allen Poe and â€Å"Once upon a Time†, by Nadine Gordimer, contain a variety of symbolism that have the possibility of having two or more meanings. The problem with this is identifyingRead More The Ghastly Writings of Poe Essay1466 Words   |  6 PagesThe Ghastly Writings of Poe Edgar Allen Poe makes tales of imagination and fantasies the irrefutable realms of fear. His tales and poems â€Å"have influenced the literary schools of symbolism†¦as well as the popular genres of detective and horror fiction (Stern xxxviii). However, as many of Poe’s tales and poems conjure terror and trepidation, they also penetrate the imagination with fantasy. Poe repeatedly attempts and succeeds at making his readers endure analogous feelings as those charactersRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s Writing Style1071 Words   |  5 PagesEdgar Allen Poe’s writing style was not well received during his life time, however his writing gained recognition as time passed turning him into a famous figure in the world of literature. Born in 1809, Poe died at the young age of 40 in 1849. Poe was one of the first writers to use short stories as a serious literary style. Most readers are unaware of the vast symbolism in Poe’s writing, but do enjoy the tonality and imagery he creates. Attention to detail and imagination allowed Edgar Allan PoeRead MoreEssay about Edgar Allan Poe1258 Words   |  6 Pagesfor much of his life could not share that with the world. Once he got into college, Poe started sharing his works with others. Soon he became famous and earned the name â€Å"Father Of Horror†. Edgar Allen Poe’s tragic life led to a fascination with the dark side which is certainly evident in â€Å"The Raven†. Edgar Allen Poe was a talented poet, who wrote many poems and books. Poe was born on January 19th 1809 in Boston Massachusetts(biography.com). He passed away on October 7th 1849, after being found unconscious

Possible Extra Terrestrial Life Free Essays

Benjamin Hastings April 10, 2013 Did Someone Move in Down the Street? An Exploration of Possible Extraterrestrial Life in the Universe, Perhaps Our Own System Other life in the universe just makes sense. Think about it, there are trillions of other stars in existence in our universe, and most of those stars have satellites, and those satellites have satellites. There are literally hundreds of trillions, if not more, planets or planet-sized satellites orbiting stars. We will write a custom essay sample on Possible Extra Terrestrial Life or any similar topic only for you Order Now To think that none of these could have life on them is just to be naive. If it happened to our planet, out of hundreds of trillions of them out there, it can happen to another, and another. We can’t be alone; distant, maybe, but alone is just too far-fetched a theory. Belief in extraterrestrial life dates back quite far, even back to ancient society. â€Å"Regarding the existence of other worlds, the ancients of both Greece and rome were deeply divided. Arguing affirmative were the Epicureans, so called after Epicurus (341-270 B. C. ), who developed certain ideas that had originated with Democritus and Leucippus two centuries earlier. Among the theories that we today consider most modern are†¦ hat life exists elsewhere in the universe†¦ Modern though these ideas may seem to us, they all indisputably date from antiquity†¦ † (Crowe- 3) We aren’t the first people to think that life must exist elsewhere, we’ve simply brought the thought back into popularity. But where could life be sustained? Bacteria have been obser ved to endure extreme conditions â€Å"in environments with very high or low temperature and where conditions are very acidic or very alkaline. † (Fix) Principles such as this suggest that â€Å"the search for life in the solar system should not be confined to the most benign environments. (Fix) Research and discoveries by Dr. Gene D. McDonald in Siberian permafrost showed that â€Å"single-celled organisms such as bacteria, archaeans, and fungi repair cellular damage for tens of thousands of years – and perhaps many times longer—after being frozen solid. † (Hart) This is incredible when considering the damage the organisms sustain while being frozen; â€Å"even when all life processes appear to have stopped, processes that affect life do not. Organisms frozen in soil continue to be bombarded by radiation from elements within the soil itself. And at any temperature above absolute zero, all molecules vibrate a little. Thus, cells’ DNA and other important molecules continue to sustain life-threatening damage. For organisms to remain viable for long periods of time, they must somehow maintain a minimal level of molecular repair. † (Hart) A breakthrough such as this suggests that if bacteria on Earth could survive temperatures this low, then certainly organisms outside of What we consider to be the inhabitable temperature zone could certainly adapt and survive on distant moons or dwarf planets. Mars, the fourth and last Solar terran planet, could hold, or have held, life on its surface. Recent study of an ancient meteorite strengthens this theory. â€Å"The meteorite†¦ is made of igneous rock that solidified about 4. 5 billion years ago at the time that Mars formed. About 3. 6 billion years ago globules of carbonate minerals were deposited in cracks in the rock. The carbonate minerals may have been deposited when liquid water seeped into the cracks. The impact of an asteroid or comet on Mars 16 million years ago ejected the rock from Mars into interplanetary space. About thirteen thousand years ago the rock fell into the Antarctic ice fields as a meteorite. † (Fix) This meteorite was carefully studied for two years, revealing several different types of evidence of primitive life on the red planet. â€Å"Another piece of evidence was the discovery of inorganic compounds like iron sulfides that can be produced by bacteria and other terrestrial organisms. The most dramatic evidence, however, is tiny structures in the carbonate globules that resemble microscopic fossils of ancient terrestrial bacteria. (Fix) Life may be closer than we think, but it also may have died out eons ago when the liquid water on the surface of Mars seemingly refused to stay in liquid form any longer. Titan, or Saturn VI, the largest Moon of Saturn, and second largest moon in the Solar System, seems promising for handling life. While being much cooler than our own planet, again, organisms that live there could adapt to the temperature, as well as atmospheric pressure it sustains; a pressure of 1. 6 bars, 60% than greater that of Earth. Titan’s atmosphere brings interesting points to itself because of its composition. Titan’s air is predominantly made up of nitrogen with other hydrocarbon elements which give Titan its orange hue. These hydrocarbon rich elements are the building blocks for amino acids necessary for the formation of life. Scientists believe that Titan’s environment may be similar to that of the Earth’s before life began putting oxygen into the atmosphere. † (Hamilton) This means that life on Titan has a potential to begin as it did theoretically on Earth, or could even have already even begun in very early stages, although these organisms would have to be highly resilient if they are anything like us. Titan’s surface temperature appears to be about -178 °C (-289 °F)†¦ scientists believe lakes of ethane exist that contain dissolved methane. Titan’s methane, through continuing photochemistry, is converted to ethane, acetylene, ethylene, and (when combined with nitrogen) hydrogen cyanide. The last is an especially important molecule; it is a building block of amino acids. † (Hamilton) Europa, a moon of Jupiter, is another highly considered candidate for life. Its surface is covered completely by a shell of ice, cracked and scarred by tidal forces deep beneath. The moon’s tidal forces â€Å"raise and lower the sea beneath the ice, causing constant motion and likely causing the cracks we see in images of Europa’s surface from visiting robotic probes. This â€Å"tidal heating† causes Europa to be warmer than it would otherwise be at its average distance of about 780,000,000 km (485,000,000 miles) from the sun, more than five times as far as the distance from the Earth to the sun. The warmth of Europa’s liquid ocean could prove critical to the survival of simple organisms within the ocean, if they exist. (HarveyBurdick) This ocean, thought to span globally â€Å"with more than twice the volume of Earth’s seas,† may have deep hidden secrets, â€Å"with conditions that might not be completely alien to some forms of life on Earth. Under its frozen crust, Europa may harbor the key ingredients required to create a habitable environment. † (Harvey) Europa’s closer, though still very far distan ce from the sun, along with what may be hidden in its ocean, make it possibly a better candidate for life within our own star system. One great physicist, Stephen Hawking, believes the possibility of life outside of our planet is too great to ignore. He jokes that â€Å"Primitive life is very common and intelligent life is fairly rare. † Although he is very fond of the theory of extraterrestrial beings, he does warn us heavily about them. â€Å"We should be careful if we ever happen upon extraterrestrial life†¦ Alien life may not have DNA like ours: ‘Watch out if you would meet an alien. You could be infected with a disease with which you have no resistance. What we normally think of as ‘life’ is based on chains of carbon atoms, with a few other atoms, such as nitrogen or phosphorous†¦ we can imagine that one might have life with some other chemical basis, such as silicon. † (dailygalaxy. com) Life to him seems undeniable in other parts of the universe, but he does suggest logically that it just may very likely not be like us. This theory is to be respected, because many p lanets and subterran objects may fall in every planetary guideline to support life, just not in the way we see it in ourselves. Life must exist elsewhere, whether it be out neighbor, next door or down the block, or whether it be outside of our closely knit family of planets, moons, asteroids, etc. It could host similar structure to our own, or be composed differently, and therefore could survive completely different conditions from our own. Simply put, it may be considered to be foolish to completely ignore the possibilities of any terran planet to sustain life, because life is almost certainly out there somewhere, and it may be the in last place we think to look. Works Cited Crowe, Micheal J. The Extraterrestrial Life Debate 1750-1900. Cambridge UP. 1986. Print. Fix, John D. Astronomy: Journey to the Cosmic Frontier. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2008. Print. Hamilton, Calvin J. â€Å"Views of the Solar System: Titan. † solarviews. com. Solarviews, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. Hart, Stephan. â€Å"Bacteria: Survival in Siberia† astrobio. net. Astrobiology Magazine, 2002. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. Harvey, Samantha and Autumn Burdick. â€Å"Solar System Exploration. † nasa. gov. NASA, 2013. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. â€Å"Stephen Hawking on the Possibility of Non-Carbon-Based Extraterrestrial Life. † dailygalaxy. com. The Daily Galaxy, 2009. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. How to cite Possible Extra Terrestrial Life, Papers